Archaeology
FIELD SAFETY HANDBOOK
Fieldwork is subject to Part 8 of the University Health and Safety Policy which
is available
at
http://www.safety.ed.ac.uk/policy/part8/index.html
in addition
to this policy.
Index
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITIES FOR SAFETY
Employees' and Student's Responsibilities
It is the duty of all personnel, under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, to take reasonable care for the health and safety of himself and other persons who may be affected by his acts or omissions at work. He must also co-operate with the Director regarding any duty or requirement imposed on the Director or any other person by or under any of the relevant statutory provisions so far as it is necessary to enable that duty or requirement to be performed or complied with. N.B. Any personnel contravening a relevant statutory provision may be prosecuted in a Sheriff Court (Scotland) or Magistrates' Court.
All personnel taking part in field work have a responsibility to adhere to sensible standards of behaviour. Personnel should be aware that fieldwork actvities have inherent hazards which staff members minimise with appropriate safety precautions. However, the potential dangers make it imperative that personnel co-operate by behaving responsibly in order to reduce the risk of accidents.
They are specifically advised to:
Obey all safety instructions given by management or supervisors. Anyone not conforming to the standards required may be dismissed from the field project.
Stay with the party, except by clear arrangement with the leaders and observe instructions for reporting after completion of work. Report any personal injury or illness.
Wear adequate clothing and footwear for the type of weather and terrain likely to be encountered.
The Department will refuse to allow ill-equipped personnel on its field projects, since it has responsibility to ensure that personnel observe the provisions regarding personal safety.
Note that unpaid employees (`volunteers') are likely to be classed as employees, if the existence of a master-servant relationship can be demonstrated, for legal purposes.
In later sections to this code, the Department makes recommendations about the safety precautions to be taken on specific field activities. It is important, however, that irrespective of the activity, certain basic rules should be observed.
The University Safety Committee does not recommend the use of statements such as that incorporated in para. 2.11 of ed Fowler P J, Responsibility and Safeguards in Excavation, CBA, London 1972 as they have no legal status with regard to safety and might induce carelessness on the part of supervising staff.
(a) The likely safety problems or risks should be identified and discussed and the nature, purpose and aim of the field project clearly understood by all concerned.
(b) The work should be planned carefully, bearing in mind experience and training and the nature of the terrain or excavation site. Care should be taken not to over-estimate what can be achieved.
(c) Personnel should indicate any physical handicap (e.g. asthma, epilepsy, allergies, diabetes etc.,) so that the appropriate precautions may be taken. Any personnel so affected should carry a card giving details of his/her personal medical history, and should provide a member of management staff with a duplicate copy. All personnel are advised to find out their blood group and supply that information to the management. Field supervisors should be informed of these details.
(d) All members of the party should know what to do in the event of an accident or emergency and a first-aid kit should always be carried.
(e) The personal equipment and clothing of all participants should be suitable for all weather conditions, terrain etc., likely to be met during the course.
(f) Special care should be taken on old army ranges or practice grounds. No explosives, detonators etc., found on sites should be touched. Any found should be reported to the party leader immediately.
(g) Always ensure that the permission of the land owner or official department has been sought before entering any area. Do not use railways as footpaths.
(f) Personnel must never work alone without the prior permission of management staff.
All work involving the use of tools on an outdoor site carries the risk of minor cuts and scratches which can result in infection or tetanus. Tetanus (lockjaw) is always serious, sometimes fatal.
It is the responsibility of the individual to seek medical advice on the need for anti-tetanus injections before commencing work, and this is required by the Department. Anti-tetanus injections can be obtained from one's own General Practitioner.
Specialist protective gear (eg hardhats and safety goggles) will be provided where appropriate. It is, however, the individual's responsibility to ensure that he/she is adequately clad (this extending to head- and foot-gear) in relation to (a) the project location and the season and (b) the work to be accomplished. Individuals are also responsible for looking after their issued safety equipment and reporting loss or damage.
Field work usually involves workers in protracted periods of time away from their base. They must ensure, in advance, that suitable clothing and changes of clothing are available at the time of the proposed field excursion and that they are in good condition. There are four main functions for protective clothing:
(a) To combat exposure due to adverse weather conditions;
(b) To protect the worker from physical and chemical hazards in the environment;
(c) To combat biological hazards;
(d) To act as a marker in recall or rescue operations. Such high visibility clothing is also essential in areas where game shooting takes place.
For those who disregard precautions, the onset of bad weather can mean acute physical discomfort, loss of direction, growing fear, exhaustion and even collapse. In general, warm, windproof and waterproof clothing should be worn with adequate protection for head, ankles, wrists and hands where heat loss is greatest. British weather is notoriously unpredictable and the effects of wind are of considerable importance, often being under-estimated, particularly in and round coastal waters and on high mountains or open upland.
In warm dry weather, clothing which is really waterproof should be carried in a pack, since it can be more of a hindrance than a help due to the build up of perspiration. In these conditions, a soft wool pullover or sweater under a jacket or anorak with shower or windproof clothing are suitable. For spells of physical inactivity, for example when collecting data, spare clothing and waterproof material to sit on are very useful.
Special Conditions:
(a) When surveying or other inactive pursuits are carried out in cold weather a pair of pyjama trousers, long johns or tights worn under normal clothing acts as an added protection.
(b) When working on or near water in the winter a wet suit or preferably a dry suit is strongly recommended and in certain exposed waters, even in summer
(c) While anoraks are suitable for most conditions, hoods and loose draw-strings can become hazards (e.g. working with machinery)
(d) Sunhats and protective clothing should be worn in hot weather to prevent sunburn/sunstroke.
Head
The head should be protected against rain and wind although separate headgear is not advisable unless it is secured by a chinstrap. In adverse weather conditions considerable body heat can be lost from the head and this fact must be seriously considered in planning outside activity. Protect the head and eyes to avoid sunstroke and snow blindness where appropriate.
Wear an approved safety helmet when visiting quarries, cliffs, deep trenches, mines, forestry operations or where there is a risk from falling objects.
It is a statutory obligation to do so when visiting working quarries, mines and buildings.
Hard hats must be worn when working at levels 4 feet/1.2m below the surrounding surface.
Hard hats should be worn when working in areas where machinery is operating.
Hard hats must be looked after. No stickers are to be attached and any impact to the hat must be reported.
Trunk
Wherever possible woollen garments give the greatest protection under an outer waterproof covering. Any loose strings, pockets, hoods etc., should be neatly secured.
High Visibility Clothing
Especially on mountains or at sea, bright (orange is recommended) outer clothing can aid any rescue operation. This outer wear should have at least one pocket containing a torch, map, compass and whistle. It is much easier for both party leaders and rescue parties to monitor the movements of a party if the members are wearing distinctive clothing.
Hands
Gloves are often a hindrance, especially when collecting data, but warm hands are important to well being and should be protected where possible with fingered thermal, flexible material, e.g. wool, or wool-lined leather or rubber.
Chrome Leather Gloves
Use chrome leather gloves or the equivalent when dealing with fencing materials, plant materials with thorns or sharp edges. Cuts can lead to tetanus infection when handling plants, animals or soils which cause abrasions.
Legs
Waterproof clothing on the trunk often leads to water draining onto the legs especially at the knees. The collection of material can also require a kneeling position in rank vegetation or on wet soils. These conditions and similar ones can cause legs to become excessively wet accompanied by considerable heat loss and discomfort. Jeans or denim trousers are unsuitable, becoming cold and clammy when wet.
Feet
Boots with strengthened toe caps are often necessary where heavy equipment is being used or where digging/picking is taking place. In general boots that support the ankle are best; they should also have a good grip. This is most important on rocky surfaces where slippery and sharp surfaces can be very dangerous.
Never work barefoot, even on apparently smooth sand which can hide potential dangers (e.g. broken glass and shell fragments).
For field walking in rough terrain, wear boots not shoes, either nailed or fitted with rubber mountaineering soles (Vibram, Commando etc.,). Gumboots can be used in wet conditions where travel is limited through shallow water and peat bogs, but they should never be worn afloat in a small craft. Wear a double layer of woollen socks wherever possible to prevent blisters. Sports shoes are unsuitable for mountainous areas and rough country, although soft, unpatterned soled shoes are often required for excavation work (but see above for heavy work).
To combat Biological Hazards
You should be aware of the dangers from poisonous higher plants, fungi and animals, particularly biting and stinging animals; wear the appropriate protective clothing. Do not eat berries, fungi etc,
Eyes
Where there is a danger from chemicals, dust, flying splinters of rock or wood, eyes must be protected by safety goggles or a face mask to the approved British Standard. A face shield is necessary when using certain sprays. See University Safety Guidance Note No. 6 (1985).
Ears
Where noisy machinery is in operation, hearing protection may be required.
It is advisable not to wear personal stereo equipment in any circumstances where reduced ability to hear may be hazardous.
ANTICIPATION OF ACCIDENTS; INSURANCE
General Procedures
Accidents unfortunately do happen. It is therefore advisable that on beginning field work in a new area the following information is collected and made available to members of the field crew.
(a) Location of nearest public telephones.
(b) Telephone numbers of:
i) Emergency services.
ii) Doctor.
(c) List of members of field crew with First Aid Experience. Whenever possible, a qualified "first-aider" will be present. Transport should always be available for the transference of an injured person to hospital, to a General Practitioner, or home as the case warrants.
(d) The Site Supervisor should make contact with a local medical practice at the commencement of operations; and where appropriate, should make contact with the police to inform them of the presence of project members in the area.
Insurance (Compulsory)
1. All staff are covered by the University Indemnity and Liability policies.
2. Students and volunteers are covered by the Public Liability section of the University's Insurance Policy, in relation to activities which might occur during the normal course of the field study. Instances in which injury occurs outwith the field study e.g., during leisure time, will require to be dealt with on their individual merits.
3. Staff may wish to take out Personal Accident Insurance Cover, the University has recently issued a document concerning this.
4. Insurance Cover for loss or theft of equipment should also be considered. Check that equipment taken into the field is included on the appropriate University schedule.
5. Contractors: management should ensure that contractors working on sites have adequate public liability insurance: £1M is suggested.
Safety and Fire Fighting Equipment
All field crew should have access to:
First Aid Kit, adequately maintained.
Fire fighting equipment, adequately maintained (especially necessary if naked flames or combustible chemicals are to be used in wooden buildings).
Fire fighting equipment may be obtained on loan from the University Fire Officer through the Safety Services Office, Old College.
Procedures for the Prevention of Accidents
It is the particular responsibility of all supervising staff to prevent accidents by arranging appropriate safety procedures and carrying out safety audits from time to time.
Management and supervisors must:
(a) Ensure that all persons under their supervision are adequately informed of any hazards they are likely to encounter in the course of their work.
(b) Ensure that all persons under their supervision know what to do in the case of fire and know the location and use of fire fighting equipment.
(c) Investigate all accidents or "near misses" promptly to discover their cause and eliminate the possibility of a recurrence. University report forms are available in First Aid boxes and on the Web.
(d) Ensure that adequate supervision is available at all times especially when new, young or inexperienced workers are concerned.
(e) Take all practical steps possible to ensure: that safety procedures are adhered to; that protective equipment is worn or used as appropriate; and that all safety devices are properly fitted and maintained.
(f) Take all practical steps to ensure that all equipment and machinery under their supervision is used appropriately, serviced properly, and inspected frequently with a view to its safety. Defects must be reported and rectified promptly. Note that a JCB or equivalent is technically a crane and should be inspected weekly.
(g) Individual responsibilities with regard to safety on any field project should be clearly designated and delegated as appropriate.
All accidents and "near misses" should be reported to the Departmental Safety Officer.
All accidents must be reported to the University Health and Safety Department in writing so that the University can meet its statutory obligations under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995. All projects should maintain a record in an Accident Book. An Accident Book should be kept on every site and must be duly completed at the time of the accident. This gives details of the time and place of the accident, who was involved, how it happened, and the names of any witnesses. All accidents must be reported to the Site Supervisor or Party Leader, and to the Project Manager (standard University forms are available for this purpose).
FIELDWORKThe following notes refer in particular to fieldwork in the uplands, and in temperate latitudes. They will need considerable modification for use in other environments.
General information for all fieldworkers, with special emphasis on upland areas.
Fieldwork in parties. Ideally, each party should include a minimum of three workers. Whenever possible, individual fieldwork should be avoided; it is, however, recognized that it is impractical entirely to avoid such solo activity, and Section 2.3 makes some suggestions as to appropriate safety precautions.
GENERAL
The object is to give some information about precautions that need to be taken by people engaged in fieldwork in mountains or moorland terrain. The fact that every year people get lost or injured, or even die in these areas emphasises that mountain and moorland can be both difficult and dangerous. Consequently people engaged in fieldwork must learn how to deal with potential dangers.
Weather can change quickly at all seasons, but the severity of the changes is greatest in the months from September to April. A blizzard can rapidly obliterate even well trodden tracks. Mist at all seasons can be a formidable hazard.
It is essential that equipment can cope with any kind of weather and the problem of survival when an individual is immobilised by weather or injury. Not all mountains and moorlands are on the same scale, e.g. British moors are minute compared to the tundra of Arctic areas or the swamps of tropical areas. The same difference in vertical and horizontal scales exists between British mountains and Alpine regions. However, the basic safety factors are the same, but the range of equipment required is greater for regions of large scale.
Avoid work near cliffs or on bogs if you are not accompanied. For work in other hazardous environments, information is provided in Section 5.
Hazardous Environments: Smoking
Do not smoke in environments (e.g. woodland) where it would be hazardous to do so.
Safety Factors and Recommendations
(a) Footwear: Boots with "commando" type soles or leather soles with nails are the best all purpose footwear. "Commando" type soles require extra care on hard snow, ice, steep wet grass, mossy and wet rock. Gum boots and/or waders may be necessary on moorland projects. Gymshoes, basketball boots etc., are suitable only on dry rock.
(b) Clothing: See previous section
(c) Food: A substantial breakfast and evening meal are essential and if conditions permit these should be hot. A nutritious lunch should be carried and eaten. A hot drink in a vacuum flask should also be carried. In addition emergency rations consisting of high calorific value foods e.g. chocolate should be carried - these are for emergency, not a welcome addition to the diet.
(d) Individual First Aid Kit: As a minimum this should contain bandage, dressing, elastoplast, aspirin or similar and antiseptic cream. In summer insect repellent and sun burn cream are useful additions. In winter "glacier" cream is useful.
(e) Map and Compass: In addition to the maps and aerial photographs of a scale suitable to the project, a general topographic map of the area should also be carried and all should know how to read them. In Britain the 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 O.S. maps are convenient for general navigation. In other regions 1:100,000 may have to suffice. (N.B. not all countries use the British convention of symbols for crags and cliffs, therefore unbroken contour lines do not necessarily mean a route is possible).
A good compass ("Silva" type or prismatic) and the knowledge to use it are essential.
Familiarize yourself with the orientation of major valleys and ridges in advance. Check the date of publication of the map and the magnetic variation as this changes from year to year. The magnetic variation is necessary to convert magnetic bearings to grid bearings and vice versa.
The "Silva" type of compass is very convenient for navigation because it incorporates a ruler and protractor; with a prismatic compass a separate ruler and protractor need to be carried.
(f) Emergency Bivouac: Always carry a large thick industrial polythene survival bag for overnight bivouacs and in winter a sleeping bag as well.
(g) Planning: This should include entry and exit points and escape routes from any point in the working area. When working from a base, leave details of the route to and from the working area, grid references to the working area and the estimated time of return to base.
While working in or intending to traverse areas of deep snow or potentially unstable material e.g. peat, special planning and precautions may be necessary; wherever possible local expert knowledge of the terrain and conditions should be sought. In such circumstances, solo work should never be allowed.
(h) Weather: If possible listen to or arrange to receive daily forecasts. In any case at least become familiar with the features of cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions, cloud formation etc., as described in books like "Understanding Weather" (Pelican Books) and keep an eye on changes downwind, although wind direction can be very variable in mountainous areas.
Weather conditions on British mountains and moorland can be as severe as any in western Europe and with even higher wind speeds. In blizzard conditions and in thick mist return to lower ground by the shortest safe route.
(i) Additional Material: Note that it may be advisable to carry matches and flares.
Health Considerations and Hazardous Environments
States of health directly related to weather conditions are - hypothermia (the loss of body core temperature in very cold and windy or wet and windy conditions) and heat exhaustion, sun-stroke and dehydration in very warm or in windy conditions with low atmospheric humidity.
(a) River Crossing: Avoid wading through fast turbulent streams, especially if more than knee deep. If rivers must be crossed then follow the procedures outlined in "Safety on Mountains" (Published by C.C.P.R.) Best advice is to avoid crossing at all if possible.
(b) Rock Climbing: If this is necessary, then the following points are important. Rock climbing techniques cannot all be learnt from books; they must be taught and practiced in advance. Equipment must be sound; rope handling, knots etc., have to be learnt before climbing.
(c) Load Carrying: Keep load as light as is compatible with safety and the protection from weather required in working area. Twenty kilogrammes is a reasonable maximum if it has to be carried all day. Keep the load high and as close to the body as possible; pack frames or high pack rucksacks are most effective. Pack so that the load is balanced. The use of a waist strap helps prevent the load swinging and so upsetting the balance of the bearer on rough ground.
(d) Camping: Use tents that are suitable for the weather conditions that might be encountered. Tents with A poles, ridge pole, sewn in groundsheets and down to earth fly sheets with snow valances are more stable than other types especially in strong winds. Choose sheltered sites with good natural drainage and a convenient water supply. Pitch the tent with door to leeward or facing shelter e.g. dry stone wall, large boulder or rock face. When more than one tent is being erected, ensure there is adequate space left between them.
Conclusions
Most emergencies are due to one or more of the following:-
(a) Carelessness
(b) Over-estimation of physical and technical ability
(c) Lack of observation
(d) Insufficient knowledge and planning
(e) Failure to act in time either as a group or individually
(f) Acting unpredictably.
1. Anyone out-of-sight of other members of the party should act as suggested in Section 2.3. This circumstance should be avoided as far as is practical.
2. Be sure that you know:(a) agreed exit routes from the area in the event of extreme weather
(b) rendez-vous points
(c) distress signals
(d) which personnel have first aid experience
(e) which personnel have maps etc when all members of the party are not carrying them.
3. Never use safety equipment (eg whistles) for any purpose other than that for which it is intended.
4. If using radios, walkie-talkies or similar:
(a) restrict use of them to the essentials (e.g. conveying surveying information) to leave the wavelength as free as possible for emergency use.
(b) remember that their range is likely to decrease markedly:
i) when you do not have line-of-sight to your interlocutor.
ii) in adverse atmospheric conditions.
Radios should never be relied upon to ensure the safety of a group or individual.
Radios should not be used in the vicinity of working quarries, or in areas of road work blasting, without the agreement of the quarry works foreman.
Fieldwork is occasionally undertaken alone and this necessitates extra care because of the difficulties that arise in case of an accident or failure to report on time. These are difficulties also for those who have to search for the missing person.
The role of the supervisor
Supervisors inform supervisees of foreseeable hazards related to the fieldwork stage of a project and should ensure (a) that the staff concerned are familiar with this code and (b) that the work is designed so as to minimize potential hazards.
Precautions:
1. All solo fieldworkers should leave information, preferably marked on a map, on
(a) their general area of operations
(b) their intended route
(c) their estimated time of return; it is suggested that a modicum of overestimation may be appropriate here.
2. It is a sensible maxim on solo fieldwork to take appropriate precautions to ensure that, in the event of injury or illness, rescuers have as good a chance as possible of finding you but to conduct yourself as if no-one knows where you are.
3. If you are immobilised for any reason, put on all spare clothing and use your survival bag without delay. Summon aid by distress signals (see section 7.1). Keep calm. Lay out your equipment, especially high visibility clothing in a prominent position to attract attention. Move to keep warm, but do not stray from the position you have marked.
USE OF ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
1. Check that any equipment making use of lasers conforms to the appropriate British Standard (BS 4803).
2. The Institute of Surveyors produces a Guide to the Safe Use of Lasers and it is recommended that this is consulted before using EDM equipment.
Excavations
The following notes are intended as a general guide to be modified according to circumstances. All sites pose particular safety hazards to a lesser or greater degree, and it will often prove necessary to supplement the following guidelines in practice.
All tools used in archaeology, especially the bigger ones like mattock, pick-axe, spade and shovel, can be dangerous when defective, and lethal when used without due care and consideration. Site workers should return any damaged tool immediately to the Site Supervisor for replacement. It is his responsibility to see that all tools are serviceable and safe.
Due care and consideration involves making sure that:
(a) there is enough working space not to endanger colleagues working nearby, and that
(b) when two or more workers are engaged on a single task there is clear understanding between them on the way in which work is to be done.
(c) Never work with any handtool with a split shaft or with a head which has worked loose.
Misunderstanding, as well as carelessness and defective tools, lies behind many site accidents. If in doubt, or if a dispute arises over method, consult the Supervisor and follow his or her instructions. This is important when working with tools with which you are unfamiliar e.g. the long-handled shovels used in some areas.
Personnel should draw all equipment necessary from tool store in the morning for work during the day. If tool requirements change during the day, equipment must be returned to the tool store before new tools are drawn out. Surplus equipment is a hazard.
Buckets and wheelbarrows must be emptied and overturned and tools stacked neatly at tea breaks and lunch break.
Never leave tools with the blade uppermost, such that they can spring up if stood on. This is particularly important with sharp tools such as spades and forks. When working with the heavier hand tools, it is important to ensure that footwear is sufficiently heavy to protect the feet.
At the end of the day all tools should be cleaned and returned to the tool store for tidy stacking.
Always bring the full range of clothing you may require for that day's work.
Soft shoes should be worn on site at all times except in very bad weather conditions or when using heavy tools: depending on the site and the work in hand, you may thus require two sets of footwear.
Knee pads and gloves are aids to comfort on site: the former are recommended when working on damp soils or on sharp/angular deposits which may damage the knees.
TRIPPING, SLIPPING AND FALLING
It is the very nature of an archaeological site to be uneven, and to have deep holes and trenches that cannot be covered or fenced. In wet weather, when the ground is muddy and slippery, the danger of a fall is greatly increased. Whenever possible, hand-rails and barriers should be provided, but it must be the responsibility of each person on site to wear suitable footwear and to move with all due care.
An archaeological site must be kept tidy. Rubbish, buckets, barrows, tools, finds boxes and trays, stones and any other obstacles that could cause tripping must be kept in their proper places, and well clear of paths and thoroughfares. Accidents through tripping are as common as accidents through simply slipping and falling.
The cardinal rules are:
(a) look where you are going
(b) keep planks free of mud and other encumbrances especially when they are wet
(c) watch out for obstacles and extra slippery areas
(d) move with care and never run
(e) pay particular attention to the position of the site datum pegs, surveying tripods and other "fixed points" around the site.
In general, extreme care should be taken when walking onto, on, or off the site to avoid disturbing section lines, marker pegs, grid strings, tags, etc.
Excavation invariably involves the digging of trenches and the creation of standing sections and baulks, and most ground, particularly that which has been disturbed, is potentially or actually unstable. The Site Supervisor is responsible for the adequate shoring, or the safe angling or battering of a section as soon as excavation reaches a depth where workers could be buried if the side collapsed. N.B. Basic standards are set out in the Construction Regulations 1961-66. Copies of these are available from the Departmental Safety Officer.
Sections are particularly dangerous when they form the sides of a narrow trench. A person working in a narrow trench can be engulfed faster and more effectively than he would be in a wider trench. As a general rule, trenches should never be narrower than one-and-a-half times their maximum depths below the ground surface. Also, the sides of a trench become even less stable when water collects in the bottom. Although pumping may keep a cutting "dry" it can also cause a flow of water into the excavation which may be sufficient to cause the soil to run. Any trench which has had standing water in it should not be entered immediately after it has been pumped out.
A further danger is soil collapse due to heavy weight, like machinery, barrow runs, spoil heaps, etc., being too close to the edges of the excavation. It is the Site Supervisor's responsibility to keep such weights well clear of the vulnerable areas, but in this it is essential that he has the co-operation of everyone on site.
In any excavation that goes deeper than a person's height (or waist level where most of the work is done kneeling down) safety helmets must be worn. These are obligatory on most urban sites, particularly where masonry can fall from trench sides, but it is advisable to wear a safety helmet on any site where flying chippings or stones from tools accidentally or foolishly misused can occur. Safety helmets are supplied by the Centre and must be issued by the Site Supervisor whenever conditions require them, or on demand.
No-one should ever work alone on an excavation. No-one should ever go into a deep cutting or trench where soil collapse is even remotely possible, unless there are other people and equipment near by, and there is an adequate escape route for speedy evacuation. Always work within sight of at least one other person.
People should refrain from sitting on or walking near the edge of baulks - which can result in section collapse.
Remember that a machine-cut trench is inherently less stable than a hand-cut trench; and mechanical excavation provides less opportunity for judging soil conditions.
LIFTING, CARRYING AND THROWINGInjuries from lifting and carrying fall into three common categories:
(a) workers straining themselves in attempting to lift heavy and unwieldy loads (ie, large stones etc.,) with a result of some form of back injury or hernia
(b) workers injuring their hands and fingers by trapping them under heavy loads
(c) workers injuring their feet and legs when heavy loads are clumsily dropped
There are correct and incorrect ways of lifting, and there are measures that can be taken to cut down the risks involved. Never try to build too big a load for one person, and most important, use the correct lifting method. As a general rule lift with your legs and not with your back, but if in doubt ask the Site Supervisor.
Where necessary use protective gloves and safety boots. Where a load is too big for one person, and a team effort is needed, make sure that everyone knows exactly what to do, and is capable of doing it. When two or more people are lifting and carrying a heavy load there must be no misunderstandings, and no weak links. Appropriate wooden or canvas stretchers should be used wherever possible.
Throwing tools or materials of any kind, within, or from inside to outside, or outside to inside of an excavation is absolutely forbidden at all times.
Ladders must be used at all times for access to, and egress from excavations more than 1 m deep. The use of ladders can be dangerous, both from ladder slipping, and user slipping. Make sure that all ladders are at the correct angle, ie. vertical when you face up the rungs, and at about 75 degrees or one in four as it leans against the section or wall. Do not stand a ladder on a slippery or unstable surface, and make sure that it is the correct length for the job. Ladders must extend at least 3' 6" above platform or ground level and must be firmly clamped or roped at the top. If the ladder is broken or damaged in any way do not use it. Report the damage immediately to the Site Supervisor.
If the weather is, or has been, wet, take extra care not to slip off the rungs because of wet and muddy footwear. Always keep a firm grip on the ladder and never attempt to carry heavy tools when using it. Never lean tools or other possible hazards against a ladder.
See also: Health and Safety Executive Guidance Note GS 31, Safe Use of Ladders, Step Ladders and Trestles (June 1984).
HOISTS, PULLEYS, SCAFFOLDING AND PHOTOGRAPHIC TOWERS
When a hoist or pulley is being used to remove spoil and stones from a deep excavation, workers loading the bucket or barrow, and guiding its ascent or descent, must wear safety helmets, and must stand as far back as practical while the hoist is operating.Buckets and barrows must never be overloaded and must be prevented from swinging and striking the sides of the excavation. Only a person who is thoroughly familiar with all aspects of operating a power hoist will be allowed to use it, and then only with the express permission of the Site Supervisor.
Scaffolding, used to support a hoist or pulley, or used for any other purposes (e.g. as a photographic tower) must only be erected by suitably experienced and competent staff, and should be inspected by a competent person in accordance with the Construction Regulations (1961-1966) (Regulations subordinate to the Factories Act, 1961). No-one will be allowed to use such scaffolding except those responsible for it, and those specifically delegated by the Site Supervisor for specific tasks. The Site Supervisor is also responsible for a regular inspection of the ground and section immediately below a scaffolding superstructure, and for seeing that any sign of a developing weakness is immediately dealt with. All site workers must co-operate in this, and must report any signs of weakness directly to the Site Supervisor. Ladders used in association with scaffolding towers should be securely attached (see Section 3.6). Scaffolding towers pose particular hazards during erection and dismantling. Persons involved in these duties must wear protective head-gear; and no-one else should work within an area of diameter equal to one-and-a-half times the height of the tower. The same rule-of-thumb applies to towers which are being moved.
Scaffolding constructions should never be left unattended in an incomplete state.
Access to scaffolding should be made as difficult as possible when sites are unattended. All scaffolding structures should be either
(a) securely fixed to a standing building or
(b), if free-standing, should be securely guyed with angle-irons and hawsers or equivalent. They should be fitted with hand-rails and toe-boards.
All equipment of the above kinds should be clearly labelled with the weight of their maximum safe loading capacity and this must not be exceeded in any circumstance. Shearlegs etc should be tested by qualified engineers.
Hired-in machinery (ie JCB, Hymac, Atlas, etc., mechanical excavators) is used to clear quickly a site down to the required archaeological level, or to cut deep trenches. Only the contractor's staff may drive such vehicles, with the exception of self-drive mini-diggers. Adequate shoring for such trenches is the responsibility of the Site Supervisor.
It is strongly advised that the Project Manager ensures that the contractor to be employed has Public Liability Insurance. This is not a legal requirement, but is in the interests of all members of the excavation team.
The basic rule on a site, whenever a machine is operating, is for everyone to keep well away. These machines are very dangerous. Any worker who will not keep well back, or who appears to be particularly "accident-prone" by temperament, will be sent right away; to another site if necessary. Similarly all visitors must be excluded from the site while machinery is being used.
The one exception to this rule is the presence of a "banksman" who stands at a safe vantage point to assist the operator and watch for important features. The "banksman" also watches for unforeseen hazards in the ground, and for any stray, over-venturesome workers who approach too close. He must have a clear hand-signal code understood with the machine operator to transmit instructions. He must wear a safety helmet.
Working with machinery
Only persons specifically nominated by the Site Supervisor may work within the boom length or cab height of any working machine (any machine with its engine running).
NEVER WORK behind a working machine. Persons working with machines should always be visible to the driver.
It is inevitable that material close to the bucket will need to be inspected closely by the person supervising machines. It is therefore ESSENTIAL that the driver realizes what you are doing BEFORE you do it.
No personnel should stand on or near dumper runs.
Supervisory staff responsible for directing machinery should pay particular attention to keeping equipment well away from areas of potential collapse. Particular attention should be paid
1. If there are overhead cables
2. If underground service cabling or pipes are anticipated (see section 3.18)
TIPPER LORRIES AND SPOIL REMOVALHired-in tipper lorries which are used in conjunction with mechanical excavators to remove spoil from a site require a great deal of room to manoeuvre. Accidents have occurred when site workers have found themselves in the path of a reversing lorry, or in an attempt to "help" have tampered with the tipper mechanisms. The same rule applies to lorries as to machinery: KEEP WELL BACK.
In order to avoid accidents in blind areas, the Site Supervisor will be responsible for detailing one person to assist the lorry driver from a safe vantage point. His duties will include watching the blind area behind the lorry for hazards, and keeping other people away. An agreed code of signals is essential.
SPOIL DUMPS
The by-products of excavation should be deposited in stable dumps at a safe distance from the excavation areas and not in positions likely to cause other hazards.
BACK-FILLINGParticular care should be taken in back-filling a site
(a) to keep machinery and personnel safely apart
(b) to leave the site in a safe condition
(c) to retain topsoil seperately for final replacement as topsoil.
(d) to leave the site in a condition acceptable to the landowner and/or his tenant.
DISPOSAL OF NOXIOUS SUBSTANCES
The product of chemical toilets and any other chemical wastes should be disposed of with due regard to hygiene and to pollution risks. Reference should be made to the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (1988), covered in more detail under laboratory regulations.
Plastic products should be discarded with due regard to livestock.
Hygiene is particularly important since many excavations are remote from normal facilities. Soap and water, where possible, should be available, otherwise a waterless skin cleanser and paper towels. Cleansing is essential before eating or after attending to personal needs. This cannot be overstated.
Adequate safeguards should be taken when using naked flames in combustible temporary buildings. If chemicals are used, the Laboratory Code should be followed (See above).
Litter should be placed in receptacles provided.
Care should be taken over the disposal of cigarette butts.
Where electrical equipment is used on site, care should be taken to ensure that:
(a) all equipment is adequately insulated
(b) all equipment is disconnected when not in use
(c) all equipment is well-maintained and in safe condition
(d) OFF/ON switches are unambiguously marked.
(e) circuit breakers, conforming to the appropriate British Standard, should be used. There must be earth leakage current breakers or residual current circuit breakers. If a mains electrical supply is available, the circuit breaker may be installed at the point-of-entry of the supply to cover the entire system.
(f) whenever possible electrical equipment on site should be of a type operated at low voltage - 115, 50 or 12V.
(g) Note that the Employers Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969 makes the employer primarily responsible for employees' deaths or injuries caused by defects in machinery.
Usually generators are:
(a) trailer type with petrol or diesel-fuelled engines, driving a dynamo for the production of electricity, or,
(b) small hand portable petrol-engined units driving a dynamo as above.
The trailer type generators have movable side coverings to keep the engine and generator dry. However, subject to dispersal of exhaust fumes, they are best used under limited cover e.g. a structure with open sides and a roof. This makes for greater safety when doing essential maintenance in wet weather.
The small generators should always be used under cover in uncertain weather conditions, again making certain that exhaust fumes can be dispersed.
Electricity, however generated, can be lethal.
Never work on a generator with the engine running.
Never connect, or disconnect, the distribution cable with the engine running.
Always site the machine on a dry level place to minimise possibilities of shock.
Always keep spare fuel at a safe distance from the equipment, since generators can spark.
Keep the distribution cable raised above ground level, where possible, so that it is visible, and avoid running over it with vehicles.
Always switch off the engine before refuelling.
USE OF METAL DETECTORS ETC ON AREAS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE AND SCHEDULED ANCIENT MONUMENTS
Note that, under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979, as amended by the National Heritage Act 1983, specific permission for the use of such equipment must be given, even in cases where permission to excavate has been granted.
DISRUPTION OF POWER, SEWAGE AND WATER SERVICESSite Supervisors should take all possible steps to ensure that they are aware of services traversing the site in advance and should notify the Gas or Electricity Boards, or the Water Services Dept. of the Local Council in the event of unearthing cabling or piping.
In Lothian Region, "Suziephone" (Freephone 111) should be consulted for information on underground services.
Note that the Health and Safety Executive regard the striking of underground services as an extremely serious issue.
UNAUTHORISED ENTRY TO ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONSNote that members of the public, especially children, may be protected under the Health and safety at Work etc Act. All reasonable steps must be taken to exclude such persons.
All the procedures in the Department of Archaeology Code of Practice for laboratories should be followed.
Particular care should be taken with respect to toxic fumes and the risk of fire.
Chemicals which are toxic, corrosive or inflammable (including fuel) should not be decanted in, or within 10 m of, any vehicle.
Particular attention should be paid to classification, packaging, labelling and radioactive substances. The appropriate regulations are:
The Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances Regulations, 1984.
The Ionising Radiation Regulations, 1985.
Guidance on the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988
TRANSPORT AND SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Care should be taken to minimize the risk of accident during the transport of personnel and equipment to the excavation site and/or during the practice of field work. The following stipulations should be complied with at all times, irrespective of the ownership of the vehicles being used.
(1) The party leader and deputy should be aware of the travel arrangements made by every member of the party, both before initial assembly, and subsequently at the start of each working day. Party members must be told how to contact the party leader or deputy in the event of unavoidable changes in transport plans.
(2) Party members must stay with the party, except when a clear arrangement has been made with the party leader.
(3) Party members must make sure that they understand and comply with instructions for reporting after completion of work. Party leaders must make sure that the party is complete at the end of each stage of the trip.
(4) Solo transport over rough country or in isolated areas should be avoided whenever possible, particularly when severe weather is conceivable or when any special danger might be encountered (e.g. in small boats or near coastal areas).
(5) Whenever solo transport is unavoidable over rough or isolated country, information about the intended travel route should be left with a responsible person at base, ideally with a map showing precise details. When vehicles are parked in remote areas and the solo driver has to walk out of sight of the vehicle, written information concerning the intended route and destination should be left clearly visible in the vehicle.
(6) Whenever public transport is employed, party members should make sure that any equipment or materials carried comply with the carrier's regulations and are stowed under safe conditions, both for normal movement and in the event of any conceivable emergency.
(7) Drivers should satisfy themselves daily that their vehicle is in a safe condition, with respect to tyres, (pressure and tread), brakes, lights, windscreen washers and wipers and steering. Any defects that develop should be reported immediately to the party leader. A vehicle in a potentially unsafe condition should not be used because under the Road Traffic Acts every driver is personally responsible for the vehicle he/she is driving.
(8) Drivers should make sure that all materials and equipment carried are stowed in a safe fashion for both routine transport and in an emergency. Under no circumstances should the vehicle be overloaded.
All goods should be packed in a safe and secure fashion. Goods projecting at front or rear should be appropriately marked, preferably with a red flag. All material carried on a roof rack must be securely attached.
(9) All chemicals carried must be packed in such a way that they could not cause injury in the event of an accident, and must be clearly identifiable. Radioactive chemicals or equipment must only be carried in compliance with the appropriate regulations (see above).(10) In addition to complying with 5.1.7 and 5.1.8 above, drivers of private vehicles should establish that their insurance cover is valid under all conditions for which their vehicle is to be employed. This is particularly essential overseas.
(11) Drivers should be aware of the dangers associated with fatigue while driving and take sensible measures to prevent it occurring.
(12) It is the Project Manager's responsibility to ensure that any University vehicle taken outwith the United Kingdom complies with the standards of the countries through which it will travel with repect to insurance, condition, equipment (e.g. warning triangle) and tachograph (if required).
In much of Europe, vehicles built with more than 9 seats (even if these seats have been removed) are classed as buses; and special regulations apply.
(13) Drivers should not wear gum boots, heavily studded boots or clogs, nor should they drive with bare feet.
(14) Seat belts must be worn at all times on public roads.
(15) Vehicles used on fieldwork should always be parked so as not to be a hazard to the other road users and so that the least damage possible will arise in the event of brake failure. Vehicles should never be parked within 2m of any excavation.
Vehicles must not be parked in areas where there is possible danger from falling rocks or trees, or where they may cause an obstruction. Care on foreshores or by rivers should be taken to ensure parked vehicles will not be flooded by the tide or a sudden rise in water level. Vehicles should not be driven on to sand or mud or any surface where there is a danger of becoming stuck. When visiting active quarries, drive and park only in specified areas.
(16) No appliances incorporating naked flames, such as stoves or lamps, should be lit or used withn 10m of any vehicle.
(17) Archaeology Department vehicles should only be driven by personnel acting with the prior consent of the Head of Department or the vehicle manager; this permission will be granted only when the driver concerned has been adequately familiarized with all the vehicle controls and the location of the first aid kit and fire extinguisher (which should be carried in all vehicles) and is known to have the requisite level of experience. Specific instructions pertain to the use of Archaeology Departmental vehicles and are available separately.
LIGHT AIRCRAFT AND FLYING
These notes refer to small groups flying in light aircraft for the purposes of aerial reconnaissance.
Party Leader or Supervisor
(1) should ensure that flights are organised only through reputable flying clubs or flying groups.
(2) should check the provisions of insurance coverage and should ensure that individual participants in the programme are fully advised of the insurance coverage and liabilities.
(3) should ensure that individual participants have registered as members or temporary members of the club or group in accordance with the regulations of these organisations, unless they have been accepted as fare-paying passengers in an aircraft the pilot of which holds a current and valid commercial pilot's licence.
(4) should check with the club or group, if flight over water is proposed, that adequate life-jackets and/or dinghy equipment is available, and that members of the party are familiar with their use.
Personnel:
(1) must follow the instructions of the Party Leader, pilot-in-charge, Chief Flying Instructor or his delegated deputy, or any other authorised officer of the airport.
(2) must in no circumstances enter hangars or any other restricted airport buildings without the express permission of an authorised officer of the airport or flying club.
(3) must in no circumstances walk across runways or perimeter tracks or any other areas used by moving aircraft except for access to and from aircraft, or as otherwise instructed by an authorised officer of the airport.
(4) must not touch, move or otherwise interfere with any aircraft or equipment unless expressly authorised by an officer of the airport or club.
In addition:
(1) All members of the party must keep well clear of aircraft propellors, jet engines or exhaust vents, particularly on approaching or alighting from aircraft.
(2) No person may "swing" a propellor for the purpose of starting an aircraft's engines unless he has received instruction in the appropriate procedures by an authorised official of the airport or club, and under no circumstances when there is no pilot at the controls, nor when the aircraft is not adequately chocked. Individuals are reminded that where impulse magnetos are fitted the slightest movement of the propellor can cause an engine to fire.
(3) Passengers allocated a front seat in a dual-control aircraft should under no circumstances interfere with hand or foot controls, or any other switches or controls located on or above the control panel or on the control console. Even when engaged in aerial photography, the front seat passenger must wear at least a lap safety belt.
(4) Members of the party must not smoke in the aircraft except with the permission of the pilot-in-charge, and must observe the no-smoking regulations in any refuelling zone.
(5) Members of the party should be advised to wear cotton or wollen clothing, rather than materials made from artificial fibres, in accordance with recommendations made by the Board of Trade, in order to reduce the dangers of burns in the event of fire. Sunglasses or goggles are advisable to protect the eyes, especially when photographing with windows open, or when flying in open-cockpit aircraft. Balaclavas and insulating jackets are recommended for winter flying.
(6) All passengers should be familiar with the emergency procedures related to the particular aircraft in which they are flying.
(7) If the aircraft is being used for oblique aerial photography, other passengers should be forewarned of the nature of the activity.
(8) The pilot-in-charge's command must be obeyed.
(9) When the pilot holds a Private Pilot's licence (PPL), no payment may be made in respect of the flight by any other person or body, even towards the direct operating costs.
(10) All baggage not in constant use during the flight must be stored in the luggage compartment.
(11) Any member of the flight crew or passenger with grounds for believing that conditions are likely to be unsafe has the right to decline to take part in a sortie, or, during a flight, to insist that the aircraft returns to base.
In all field work, the control of safety through people and equipment is important, but even more so in work afloat and particularly in tidal waters. There are high risks from immersion in very cold water, resulting in hypothermia or exposure before a person can be got to proper shelter or care, or in drowning.
Boats and ancillary equipment must be well designed for the kind of work intended and must be in good condition. Stability and strong construction are more important than speed in a working boat. If inflatables are chosen for inshore work amongst seashore rocks etc., owing to their vulnerability to damage, they must be of good manufacture and maintenance. Unless quite big, inflatables tend to be "wet" boats and also when not under power tend to blow across the surface more than a boat with some bite in the water.
An experienced person should always be in charge of the party in tidal waters and, even in fresh water, solo work should be discouraged. No person should be allowed to go out in a boat without preliminary instruction in basic boatmanship.
Each project should have rules governing boat-handlers, and the number of persons to be carried in each vessel. Trips should be sanctioned by a responsible person and it should always be made clear who is the one person in charge of the boat whose orders are absolute.
Before each trip a notice should be left with some responsible person at the Departmental office or base, giving details of persons, destination or work area, time of departure and expected time of return. This is best prepared on a standard form giving other information such as a description of the boat for use in case of emergency.
If a boat is to be used on the sea, the users should have access to, and have read a copy of the Seaway Code, which is in an excellent booklet available free from the Coastguard or the Board of Trade.
Projects having a boat capable of making even short trips along a coast should consider using the Coastguard Yacht and Boat Safety Scheme, which exists to provide Coastguards with the necessary information to mount a successful search and rescue operation and to provide closer links with small boat users.
Weather Forecasts
The best forecasts on radio for the work afloat are on Radio Scotland just before 0700, 0800 and 1800 hours. The country is divided into areas e.g. Moray Firth, Aberdeen etc., and details of wind direction and strength are given. A more detailed forecast can be obtained from the Met. Office and information on sea conditions from the local Coastguard. It is useful, if listening to Inshore Shipping forecasts, to know the meaning of the Beaufort Wind Scale numbers; and to write down the forecasts for the appropriate sea areas.
Even in ideal weather it is sensible before going on the sea to find out whether any change is likely.
1. Shipping Forecasts
(a) Radio 4 200 KHz; 1500 M
Throughout the week: 0033, 0555, 1355, 1750.
(b) Telephone forecasts are available from Marinecall; the number is listed in the front of telephone directories.
2. Gale WarningsThese will be announced at programme junctions following their issue and following the next news bulletin on the hour.
3. Inshore Water Forecasts
Radio 3 1215 KHz, 247 m
Throughout the week: 0655
Radio 4 longwave
Throughout the week: 0038
Insurance
Employer's liability insurance may need to be extended to cover marine craft. Directors should ensure that hired boats have adequate insurance cover.
Tides and Local Hazards
It is necessary when going on the sea to know about tides and the times of their movements. Even where a boat can be put into the water at any state of the tide, the direction of tide flow along the coast will depend on whether it is rising or falling.
The flood or rising tide flows clockwise round the north of Scotland and is for example, flowing south along the coast in the Edinburgh area. On the ebb, the directions are reversed. There is a period of slack water at the end of each ebb and flow. The range of the tide between each low and high water varies. Every fifteen days there are Spring tides giving the highest high tides and the lowest low tides. In between these periods are the neap tides giving the tides of least range. From day to day tides run about an hour later.
Tide tables give the times of high and low water for each day of the year. They also give the highest level of each tide. This is because the depths on charts give the lowest level the tide is likely to go (Chart Datum) and the height of the tide must be added to get the true depth. This can be very useful when collecting specimens etc., as, for example, one can work out when, and for how long, a tidal strip will be exposed.
Whenever possible consult local boat owners for advice about local hazards, such as submerged rocks, and for other useful information.
Clothing
Clothing is dealt with in Section 1.6 of this code, but it should be remembered that it is always colder on water and allowance made for this.
The effects of hypothermia mentioned in Section 6 are less obvious if a person affected is sitting still in a boat and the only signs may be listlessness and lack of co-ordination.
Good waterproof clothing should be worn, including head-gear, as this will usually be necessary to keep out the wind. Nobody should be allowed to go out in a boat unless properly clothed in the opinion of the person in command.
Lifejackets
Ability to swim is not a substitute for a life-jacket. Orally, or part orally, inflated lifejackets should be avoided. It is very difficult, and for some people impossible, to inflate an empty lifejacket in the water. Immersion in Scottish waters causes a certain amount of shock anyway and people sometimes land in the water as the result of an accident of some kind, when they may be stunned or unconscious through a knock on the head. They will be unable to inflate such a lifejacket fully at a time when they need it most.
A lifejacket made to B.S. 3595 and having an inherent buoyancy of at least 115 N (351bf) should be used even if it causes some slight impairment of the ability to carry out work.
Lifejackets are often subjected to hard wear and tear and should be regularly inspected. The use of covers recommended by some manufacturers should be considered.
Equipment
Before each trip, a checklist should be used to establish the presence and good condition of items affecting safety. The list should contain most of the following:
Lifejackets, oars and rowlocks, anchor and warp, flares, bailer, fire extinguisher, tools, spare shear-pin or spring and split pin, spare plugs, compass, first aid kit, sea anchor and long line, large torch and spare bulb, horn, spare fuel, paddle, bellows or inflator, loudhailer, marine radio, emergency transmitter, log book. The spare spark plugs and flares must be stored in separate watertight containers.
Distress Signals
Small boats on the sea should carry 2 red hand flares and 2 orange smoke signals. They should be renewed every year. The previous year's ones can be carried as a back-up. They should be easily accessible to numb fingers. It is easier to read and get familiar with the instructions beforehand than in a situation where they are needed. (Beware of the kick-back from hand flares in case the second one lands in the boat).
Capsize
If you capsize the boat away from the shore, stay with the boat. Do not exercise to keep warm as this increases the heat loss and wastes energy, increasing the effects of hypothermia. A whistle on a lifejacket could be useful. The risk of capsize increases if the craft is being used as a platform for diving.
FogIf fog is approaching, or haze thickening, a compass bearing should be taken on some mark, in case visibility decreases further. If caught in fog, keep engine down so that you can hear better. A small pressurised can fog horn, or a mouth operated plate layers type horn should be carried.
This could be useful at any time to attract attention if you need help (dot dot dot - dash dash dash = I require assistance)
Anchor
The anchor warp should be stored in such a way that it goes out cleanly and there must be enough chain between it and the anchor to ensure that it will lie the correct way. Check that the other end is tied on.
Conclusion
It is easy to get into a hazardous situation in a boat, but this need not matter if sensible precautions are taken beforehand and proper safety items are carried.
Sunshine and good conditions can breed carelessness and it pays to be always looking about.
DIVING (SUB-AQUA)
1. It will be assumed throughout this section that diving is a small group activity. Should a situation arise in which a large group is to go underwater, this should only be permitted if there is no doubt that every member of the party is qualified to the standards indicated below.
2. No-one should be permitted to dive unless they are fully qualified as specified in Health and Safety Executive relevant publications.
3. A fully-kitted diver should be available on the surface as standby cover. Someone on the surface should be capable of kiss-of-life and other appropriate revival techniques.
5. At least one member of the dive party must be qualified in lifesaving and artificial respiration.
6. All equipment should be checked immediately prior to the commencement of the dive. If any equipment is not in good working condition, the dive must not proceed.
7. Where low pressure airlines are being used, a third person must be in charge of maintaining the air pump fuel levels etc. That person must be briefed on emergency procedures in the event of pump failure.
8. All divers must wear adjustable buoyancy life-jackets.
9. Diving or repeat diving to a depth that requires decompression stops must not be carried out unless a decompression chamber is available at the surface.
10. At least one person on the surface must know where to contact the nearest decompression chamber and medical assistance.
11. Always seek permission before diving within harbour limits or in private water, or where access to the water is over private land.
12. All intending divers must be fully conversant with The British Sub-Aqua Club Manual and the Code of Practice for Scientific Diving.
13. All divers operating from craft should have an agreed system with the boats crew for diving and getting on board the craft as well as for emergency circumstances.
14. A diving log must be maintained.
15. Notwithstanding the above points, no dive should take place without complying fully with the relevant sections of the Diving Operations at Work Regulations 1998, unless specific exemptions have been granted.
OTHER SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Caves
Excavation in caves should follow the rules set out for general excavation with the added proscription that any excavation of deposits may result in the collapse of hidden materials (eg Aven deposits). Geological advice should be taken where any doubt exists as to the stability of materiaL.
It will be assumed here that all cave work will be performed by small groups. Individuals must not enter caves alone under any circumstances.
1. Before entering a cave, carry out research on the cave system with especial reference to points of danger or difficulty and obtain a plan whenever practical.
2. Under no circumstances attempt to explore a cave system which is considered to be of a difficulty greater than that previously achieved by a majority of the party.
3. Caves opening into active quarries are extemely hazardous and unstable and on no account should be entered.
4. Caving in systems adjacent to active quarries carries the aditional risk of collapse following blasting due to ground shock waves. Consultation with quarry managers as to blasting times is strongly advised - and entry into such systems timed accordingly.
5. A party leader must be designated and this leader must be an experienced caver.
6. Always leave word where you are going and your anticipated time of return.
7. No member of any party should enter a cave unless wearing an approved safety helmet.
8. Ensure that you have the necessary equipment for special difficulties known to exist in the cave and check that it is in good working condition before entering the cave.
9. All members of the party must be equipped with vapour and sealed electric safety lamps with reserves, suitable clothing, and food, where necessary.
10. For pitches, everyone must have a whistle and use the standard code - one blast, stop; two blasts, haul in; three blasts, pay out.
11. Cleated boots must not be worn if a rope ladder is to be used in the cave.
12. Leave no litter in caves.
13. If diving is necessary in the cave, then the instructions laid out in Section 5.4 must be strictly adhered to. Cave diving is a highly hazardous operation requiring specialist equipment and training and on no account should be attempted without the advice and presence of experienced cave divers.
14. Beware of any special safety risks - gases, flooding.
15. For further information consult the British Cave Research Associations book "Manual of Caving Techniques" (ed C. Cullingford 1969).
Beaches and Cliffs
Party Leaders or Supervisors:
1. Should do all possible to check in advance for potential hazards along the route. A reconnaissance trip is strongly advised, especially to look for areas of quicksand or unstable cliff.
2. Should know signs of hypothermia and exhaustion and be familiar with treatment. Remember an open beach on a windy day may be almost as severe an environment as a mountain top might be in spring or summer.
3. Must check local tidal conditions, especially time of high tide and tidal range.
4. Make sure personnel are properly clad with waterproof and strong footwear and, if working near cliffs, approved safety helmets.
5. When working on cliffs, make sure personnel adhere to instructions.
6. Ensure, especially if working on mud flats or salt marshes, that personnel do not wander away from the main group. Roping up the party is a sensible precaution.
Personnel:
1. Must follow the instructions of the leader.
2. Must not leave main groups unless with express permission of leaders.
Personnel working alone or in small parties
Most provisions are applicable for independent fieldwork.
In Addition:1. Leave word with the local police or coastguard about your route and your likely times of arrival and departure
2. Know the international distress signal and have in your possession a means of delivering it, e.g. whistle, torch.
3. Never go alone into areas known to contain quicksand or onto cliffs.
Dangerous Buildings
Whenever a Site Supervisor or Party Leader has reason to doubt the safety of a standing structure to be visited, he/she should
1. Instruct other project members not to enter the structure, or such part of it as is considered unsafe (which should be cordoned off).
2. Restrict survey to the exterior.
Excreta
Excreta should not be disturbed nore than necessary; appropriate clothing must be worn and face masks may be necessary. Particular attention should be paid to personal hygiene.
Asbestos
Specialist advice should be sought in advance of work if contamination by asbestos dust is anticipated.
PROCEDURES IN THE EVENT OF AN ACCIDENT
In case of an accident, the following procedure generally should be followed:
(1) The leader must act quickly but calmly to ensure that further danger to the injured and the other members of the party is minimised.
(2) First aid should be given to the injured as soon as possible.
(3) The injured person should be made as comfortable as possible. Care should be taken to provide adequate insulation from the ground and spare clothing and sleeping bags etc., should be used to protect the extremities of the injured. If the injured person cannot be moved to shelter, a shelter should be built around him.
(4) The next course of action will depend on factors such as the nature of the injuries, the state of the remainder of the party, the time available, weather conditions and the availability of assistance. If assistance is required, then the police should be informed from the nearest telephone.
The person - and there should, if possible, always be more than one - reporting the accident should stand by the telephone in case further information is required and to guide rescuers to the scene of the accident. The following information should be given to the police or the rescue party:
(a) position of injured (grid reference and nearest main feature)
(b) number of injured
(c) nature of injuries
(d) time of accident
(e) is the injured likely to be moved from this place
(f) If so, by what route
(g) does the injured need a stretcher?
(h) leader's name
(5) If it is decided to move the injured person without outside assistance, it should be recognised that "improvised" stretchers are of short range value. It would be exhausting and possible dangerous to attempt to carry an injured person a long distance by such methods. Their main use is in moving an injured person to a more sheltered position, or in moving someone with relatively minor injuries or, of course, when moving by any method is preferable to leaving the injured person where he is.
(6) In the event of serious accident or injury, do not hesitate to abandon equipment. Never leave an injured person, unless this is unavoidable. If so, mark the position by laying out equipment.
The following notes are no substitute for having a qualified First Aid Person available on a project.
Hypothermia - a major Hazard
Apart from falls, drowning etc., the most serious hazard that can occur in field activities is hypothermia. This is caused by the exposure of the body to progressive cooling as a result of severe weather conditions. It can occur at any time on the hills or seas of Britain and anywhere during the winter months. Unless the symptoms are recognised and preventative action taken immediately it can rapidly result, in extreme cases, in death.
The symptoms are:
(a) A slowing down of pace or effort, which may alternate with sudden outbursts of energy
(b) Aggressive response to advice or counsel
(c) Abnormality of vision, stumbling and slurring of speech
(d) Shivering and tiredness
If the victim is urged to greater effort or left unprotected, the consequences can be serious.
Action to be taken:
Stop and find the best available shelter out of the wind. Insulate the casualty against further heat loss until help can be obtained. This can be done with additional clothing (even over wet garments), or a large plastic bag (a survival bag) which should be pulled up over the victim and tied at the neck. Get help quickly.
Some field studies are carried out on water where similar severe exposure can be experienced. The temperature of open waters in and around Britain is rarely high enough to be sure that total immersion will not be accompanied by some degree of shock. Water displaces the insulation layer of air between the body and clothing and may lead to hypothermia. Immersion in water below about 22 degrees C accompanied by physical effort is likely to increase the net heat losses from the body, as can winds or wet clothing. It is important to avoid total immersion (unless diving) and to keep clothing dry and windproof.
It is recommended that if at all possible a warm sweet drink be given to the victim. Under no circumstances should alcoholic beverages be given.
General Notes on Casualties
If immediate danger threatens, remove the casualty carefully to a safer place. Do not expose youself to the danger and thereby risk becoming a second casualty.
If the person's clothing is on fire, roll the casualty on the ground in a coat or fire blanket, etc.
Get help at once.
Priorities
Breathing:
If the casualty is not breathing, start mouth-to-mouth respiration at once (see method below).
Bleeding
If bleeding is severe, apply direct pressure on the wound to stop bleeding, using hands, pads, dressings, etc.
If the bleeding is from a limb, elevate it 10"-12" to reduce the blood flow.
Do not use a tourniquet.
Shock
Keep the casualty quiet, reassured and comfortable.
Keep the casualty warm, but do not overheat.
Do not give food or drink to persons who might need subsequent medical treatment as this can cause complications.
Mouth-to-mouth Respiration
Lie casualty flat if possible.
Ensure no obstructions are in the mouth.
Ease constrictions at neck, chest, waist.
Place rolled jacket or pad under shoulders to arch the neck.
Pinch casualty's nostrils and draw chin forward to open mouth.
Take a moderately deep breath and breathe steadily into casualty's mouth (chest will rise).
Lift your head and allow casualty to exhale (see chest deflate).
Repeat your inspiration and breathing into casualty's mouth at about 6-8 times per minute.
Continue until casualty resumes breathing unaided.
Place casualty in the Recovery position and treat as an unconscious casualty.
St Andrew's Ambulance Association Emergency Resucitation Charts are available, at cost, from the Health and Safety Department at 41 Forrest Hill,. A copy of this chart should be diplayed prominently wherever there is a foreseeable risk of an accident resulting in an unconscious casualty.
The Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981 place a general duty on the University to make adequate First Aid provision for all employees should they be injured or become ill at work. A University guidance note is available from the Health and Safety Department at 41 Forrest Hill,, which gives practical advice on how individual departments can meet the requirements of the First Aid Regulations.
First Aid Training
The University First Aid Training Courses, which are held at Basic Level, Advanced Occupational Level and Instructor's Level, have all been approved by the Health and Safety Executive under the 1981 Regulatons. Successful participants on each course are awarded a University of Edinburgh First Aid Qualification Certificate at the appropriate level. Each certificate is valid for a three year period. The University also provides half-day non-certificated courses covering specialist First Aid topics and a student course which covers the basics of emergency First Aid for fieldwork and expeditions.
Applications for places on any of the University First Aid Training Courses should be made to the Health and Safety Department at 41 Forrest Hill,. There is a programme of training with the Safety Services Officer.
The University has published a First Aid Procedure Guide, which is issued to all qualified First Aid workers.
MEDICAL ASPECTS - GENERAL PROVISIONSThe main potential hazards in field work are exposure, due to abnormally severe conditions and/or unsuitable clothing or equipment, (discussed at length above - Section 1) and accident, caused by insufficient knowledge, weather, carelessness or misfortune. If careful heed is paid to the recommendations of this Code, only the latter should be of consequence. However, even the effects of gross misfortune may be less severe as a result of careful forethought: in an extreme case, life may be saved.
The following recommendations are intended to serve as minimum information and as a guide to action required prior to the commencement of field work to minimise risk to personnel.
(1) The party leader must ensure that all participating personnel know what to do in the event if an emergency. Any statement of procedures should include the name(s) of participating members with first aid training, the location of the nearest telephone and the name, locations and telephone numbers of the nearest doctor and hospital casualty unit. Make sure that all party members are aware that emergency assistance may be obtained by dialling 999.
(2) The party leader should establish that those participating on the course do not suffer from any illness or a medical condition that could expose them or others to undue risk during the course. Examples of such conditions include chronic asthma, epilepsy, certain heart conditions, pregnancy (for some types of field work), and certain types of diabetes.
(3) All personnel involved in field studies should be immunized against tetanus. For some overseas visits, valid immunization against other diseases which might be encountered, such as cholera and yellow fever, may be advisable, even if not legally required. The party leader should establish that all participating personnel are aware in good time of recommended vaccinations and of the time required to attain immunization.
(4) A substantial first aid kit should be carried with all parties. In addition individuals should carry antiseptic wipes and a small number of adhesive dressings. Foot blisters are a common cause of suffering and delay when much walking is necessary; they may be avoided by application of plaster when the irritation is first felt.
(5) Ideally the party leader or one member of the group should be fully trained in administering first aid. The leader should at least be familiar with basic first aid to the level contained in the Forestry Safety Council Leaflet FSC 34 "First Aid". It should be remembered that although first aid may serve as a useful temporary measure, expert medical advice should always be sought at the first possible oportunity.
Fieldwork First Aid
The Head of Department should ensure that adequate First Aid instruction has been given to those who undertake a programme of work in the field. Group leaders and supervisors are advised to attend either the University basic or Advanced Occupational First Aid Training Courses and thereby obtain a recognised qualification certificate. A Red Cross or St Andrew's Certificate is equally acceptable.
Details of all First Aid training courses can be obtained from the Health and Safety Department at 41 Forrest Hill,.
Group leaders must ensure that easily recognisable First Aid kits, suitable for the task to be undertaken, are carried on all field excursions by persons known to all members of the group. Contents of First Aid kits should conform to the requirements of the Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations, 1981. A recommended contents list is available from the Health and Safety Department at 41 Forrest Hill,.
Health Hazards
Fieldwork supervisors should ascertain the nature and extent of possible health hazards in the proposed locality; in particular the need for vaccination against tetanus for work in terrestrial and freshwater habitats. The University policy on protection against tetanus is set out in a separate guidance note available from the Health and Safety Department at 41 Forrest Hill.
Important preparations for fieldwork abroad include medical prophylaxis and provisioning of medical supplies, both for protection and emergencies. Particular care should be taken to avoid hazards and dangers arising from poisonous animals and plants and poisonous chemicals, such as poison baits and pesticide sprays, etc., used on agricultural land.
Members of a groups should indicate to their group leader any physical handicap such as asthma, epilepsy, etc., so that appropriate precautions may be taken and medical supplies carried.
INTERNATIONAL DISTRESS CODESThe international distress signals are:
a) six torch flashes, whistles, blasts or waves of a light coloured cloth. If using a torch, remember to vary the direction it is pointed in.
b) one minute pause
c) another six blasts, flashes, etc, repeat ad lib (when in distress, do not exhaust yourself by signalling exhaustively)
The Answering call is:
Three flashes/blasts etc, repeated after one minute.
S.O.S.
This rescue call has the merit of being widely known in Britain:
. . . _ _ _ . . .
sent either visually (torch flashes) or audially (whistle blasts)
7.2: LAND WEATHER FORECASTS RADIO 4 LONGWAVE AND VHF
(usually)
Mon-Fri 0010 0655 0755 0857 1255 1755 2229
Sat 0010 0655 0755 0857 1255 1755 2158
Sun 0010 0655 0755 0855 1255 1755 2158
For shipping and Inshore waters forecasts, see Section 5.3.1
USING CB OR RADIO
Read the Licence - this details conditions of use
Operation:
1) Listen with the squelch control turned fully down, before you transmit.
2) Keep conversations short.
Choice of Channel/Emergencies and Assistance
1) On all channels, give priority to calls for help
2) Leave Channel 9 clear for emergencies
3) If a call for help on Channel 9 elicits no response, try either Channel 14 or Channel 19.
4) If you hear a call for help, respond only if no regular volunteer monitor answers.
5) CB is not a substitute for the 999 telephone service ashore or VHF radio channel 16 afloat. There is no official organisation for monitoring CB.
Safety
1) Never erect or use an antenna underneath or near an overhead power line. To do so can be fatal.
2) If an antenna is to be mounted on a vehicle, remember that the risk identified above (7.3.4.1) still pertains (eg at Level Crossings on electrified railways).
3) DO NOT TRANSMIT:
a) when fuel/other explosives are in the open
b) at or near a quarry
c) whilst driving
d) with the antenna less than 15cm from your face
FIRST AID KIT - SUGGESTED CONTENTS
As field work and excavation circumstances vary so much, this following list should not be considered as definitive.
All accidents, injuries and sickness should be entered - and the treatment given - in a Medical Record Book as a safeguard in the case of subsequent complications.
1 pair scissors
1 pair forceps
Safety pins (various)
1 roll 1/2 inch elastoplast
Cotton wool
Gauze (2mm)
1 bottle TCP or equivalent
Clean water
Soap and bowl
2 blankets
Tissues/paper towels
Box sticking plaster
1 pkt strip dressing
Box dumb-bell non-stretch sutures
1 large, 2 medium medicated wound dressings
1 large, 2 medium burn dressings
Triangular bandage
2 x 3in crepe bandages
25 anti-histamine tablets
1 tube bland anti-septic cream
4 sterilised eye pads
Bottle eye wash
Bottle sterilised water
1. Safety in Outdoor pursuits - Department of Education and Science
2. A code of Geological Field Work - Geologists Association
3. Code of Practice for Scientific Diving Natural Environment Research Council
4. Air Diving Operation (SCUBA)- U.S. Navy Diving Manual
5. The British Sub-Aqua Club Manual
6. "Mountain Safety Basic precautions" - Climber and Rambler
7. Safety on Mountains - British Mountaineering Council (Page 11 details Naismith's rule, advisable for route planning)
8. Mountaineering from Hill-Walking to Alpine Climbing Alan Blacklaw (Penguin Books)
9. Be expert with Map and Compass Bjorn Kjellstrom, Scribner 1976
10. Hand-book for Expeditions - The Brathay Exploration Group and Geographical Magazine
11. Manual of Caving Techniques - British Caving (2nd Edition) Ed. C. Cullingford 1969 Cave Research Group of Great Britain (Routledge and Kegan Paul)
12. Safety and Health in Buiding and Civil Engineering I.L.O
13. Safety in Small Craft - Department of Trade
14. Safety Code - Department of Trade
15. First Aid - St Andrews Ambulance Association
16. FSC 34 First Aid - Forestry Commission
17. Mountain Leadership - Eric Langmuir - Scottish Sports Council (The Official Handbook of the Mountain Leader Training Boards, very good for British conditions)
18. Mountaineering - Alan Blackshaw (1965) Penguin Books (an excellent and thorough text-book covering both British and Alpine conditions)
19. Mountain Weather for Climbers - David J. Unwin (1978) Cordee 1. (a modest little booklet, but giving a sound and useful coverage)
20. "Exhaustion - Exposure" - Dr J.Ogilvie (the best treatise for the layman) Climber and Rambler vol. 16, nos 19 and 20, Sept and Oct 1977
21. Mountain Navigation - Peter Cliff - Cordee 2
22. Safety in Biological Fieldwork - Guidance Notes for Code of Practice 2nd edition, Ed. D. Nichols Institute of Biology
23. Guidance Note. Safety in Fieldwork - Natural Environment Research Council
24. "Earthmoving Machines and their Employment on Archaeological Excavations" D.F.Petch (1968) Journal of Chester Archaeological Society 55: 15-28
25. Responsibility and Safeguards in Archaeological Excavation ed. P.J. Fowler CBA London
26. "Earthmoving on Open Archaeological sites" F.Prior The Institute of Field Archaeologists Technical Paper No 4
27. The Scottish universities COSHH Handbook 1989 Scottish Universities Safety Staff, Guidance on the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988
Copies of both 22 and 23 may be borrowed from Health and Safety Department
Last edited, and still under construction, on 8th March 2002
